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First in the world, awaiting for Chow Ang Moh to copycat. But they will take lifetime and failures.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/starts...ing-hydrogen-into-helium-mostly/#2d82e0fb70f9
The Sun's Energy Doesn't Come From Fusing Hydrogen Into Helium (Mostly)
Ethan Siegel Senior Contributor Starts With A Bang Senior Contributor
Science The Universe is out there, waiting for you to discover it.
The Sun is the sources of the overwhelming majority of light, heat, and energy on Earth's surface, and is powered by nuclear fusion. But less than half of that, surprisingly, is the fusion of hydrogen into helium.public domain
If you start with a mass of hydrogen gas and bring it together under its own gravity, it will eventually contract once it radiates enough heat away. Bring a few million (or more) Earth masses' worth of hydrogen together, and your molecular cloud will eventually contract so severely that you'll begin to form stars inside. When you pass the critical threshold of about 8% our Sun's mass, you'll ignite nuclear fusion, and form the seeds of a new star. While it's true that stars convert hydrogen into helium, that's neither the greatest number of reactions nor the cause of the greatest energy release from stars. It really is nuclear fusion that powers the stars, but not the fusion of hydrogen into helium.
A portion of the digitized sky survey with the nearest star to our Sun, Proxima Centauri, shown in red in the center. While sun-like stars like our own are considered common, we're actually more massive than 95% of stars in the Universe, with a full 3-out-of-4 stars in Proxima Centauri's 'red dwarf' class.David Malin, UK Schmidt Telescope, DSS, AAO
All stars, from red dwarfs through the Sun to the most massive supergiants, achieve nuclear fusion in their cores by rising to temperatures of 4,000,000 K or higher. Over large amounts of time, hydrogen fuel gets burned through a series of reactions, producing, in the end, large amounts of helium-4. This fusion reaction, where heavier elements are created out of lighter ones, releases energy owing to Einstein's E = mc2. This occurs because the product of the reaction, helium-4, is lower in mass, by about 0.7%, than the reactants (four hydrogen nuclei) that went into creating it. Over time, this can be significant: over its 4.5 billion year lifetime thus far, the Sun has lost approximately the mass of Saturn through this process.
A solar flare from our Sun, which ejects matter out away from our parent star and into the Solar System, is dwarfed in terms of 'mass loss' by nuclear fusion, which has reduced the Sun's mass by a total of 0.03% of its starting value: a loss equivalent to the mass of Saturn.NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory / GSFC
But the way it gets there is complicated. You can never have more than two objects collide-and-react at once; you can't simply put four hydrogen nuclei together and turn them into a helium-4 nucleus. Instead, you need to go through a chain reaction to build up to helium-4. In our Sun, that involves a process called the proton-proton chain, where:
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When two protons meet each other in the Sun, their wavefunctions overlap, allowing the temporary creation of helium-2: a diproton. Almost always, it simply splits back into two protons, but on very rare occasions, a deuteron (hydrogen-2) is produced.E. Siegel / Beyond The Galaxy
The most straightforward and lowest-energy version of the proton-proton chain, which produces helium-4 from initial hydrogen fuel. Note that only the fusion of deuterium and a proton produces helium from hydrogen; all other reactions either produce hydrogen or make helium from other isotopes of helium.Sarang / Wikimedia Commons
A higher-energy chain reaction, involving the fusion of helium-3 with helium-4, is responsible for 14% of the conversion of helium-3 into helium-4 in the Sun. In more massive, hotter stars, it can dominate.Uwe W. and Xiaomao123 / Wikimedia Commons
So those are the four possible overall steps available to the components that make up then entire "hydrogen fusing into helium" process in the Sun:
And I want you to note something very interesting, and perhaps surprising, about those four possible steps: only step #2, where deuterium and a proton fuse, producing helium-3, is technically the fusion of hydrogen into helium!
Only brown dwarfs, like the pair shown here, achieve 100% of their fusion energy by turning hydrogen into helium. Because deuterium fusion (deuterium+hydrogen=helium-3) occurs at temperatures of just 1,000,000 K, 'failed stars' that don't reach 4,000,000 K get their energy exclusively from the deuterium they're formed with.NASA/JPL/Gemini Observatory/AURA/NSF
Everything else either fuses hydrogen into other forms of hydrogen, or helium into other forms of helium. Not only are those steps important and frequent, they're more important, energetically, and a greater overall percentage of the reactions than the hydrogen-into-helium reaction. In fact, if we look at our Sun, in particular, we can quantify what percentage of energy and of the number of reactions in each step is. Because the reactions are both temperature dependent and some of them (like the fusion of two helium nuclei) require multiple examples of proton-proton fusion and deuterium-proton fusion to occur, we have to be careful to account for all of them.
The classification system of stars by color and magnitude is very useful. By surveying our local region of the Universe, we find that only 5% of stars are as massive (or more) than our Sun is. More massive stars have additional reactions, like the CNO cycle and other avenues for the proton-proton chain, that dominate at higher temperatures.Kieff/LucasVB of Wikimedia Commons / E. Siegel
In our Sun, helium-3 fusing with other helium-3 nuclei produces 86% of our helium-4, while the helium-3 fusing with helium-4 through that chain reaction produces the other 14%. (Other, much hotter stars have additional pathways available to them, including the CNO cycle, but those all contribute insignificantly in our Sun.) When we take into account the energy liberated in each step, we find:
This cutaway showcases the various regions of the surface and interior of the Sun, including the core, which is where nuclear fusion occurs. Although hydrogen is converted into helium, the majority of reactions and the majority of the energy that powers the Sun comes from other sources.Wikimedia Commons user Kelvinsong
It might surprise you to learn that hydrogen-fusing-into-helium makes up less than half of all nuclear reactions in our Sun and that it's also responsible for less than half of the energy that the Sun eventually outputs. There are strange, unearthly phenomena along the way: the diproton that usually just decays back to the original protons that made it, positrons spontaneously emitted from unstable nuclei, and in a small (but important) percentage of these reactions, a rare mass-8 nucleus, something you’ll never find naturally occurring here on Earth. But that’s the nuclear physics of where the Sun gets its energy from, and it's so much richer than the simple fusion of hydrogen into helium!
I am a Ph.D. astrophysicist, author, and science communicator, who professes physics and astronomy at various colleges. I have won numerous awards for science writing since 2008 for my blog, Starts With A Bang, inclu...
MORE
Astrophysicist and author Ethan Siegel is the founder and primary writer of Starts With A Bang! His books, Treknology and Beyond The Galaxy, are available wherever books are sold.
The Sun's Energy Doesn't Come From Fusing Hydrogen Into Helium (Mostly)
Ethan Siegel Senior Contributor Starts With A Bang Senior Contributor
Science The Universe is out there, waiting for you to discover it.
The Sun is the sources of the overwhelming majority of light, heat, and energy on Earth's surface, and is powered by nuclear fusion. But less than half of that, surprisingly, is the fusion of hydrogen into helium.public domain
If you start with a mass of hydrogen gas and bring it together under its own gravity, it will eventually contract once it radiates enough heat away. Bring a few million (or more) Earth masses' worth of hydrogen together, and your molecular cloud will eventually contract so severely that you'll begin to form stars inside. When you pass the critical threshold of about 8% our Sun's mass, you'll ignite nuclear fusion, and form the seeds of a new star. While it's true that stars convert hydrogen into helium, that's neither the greatest number of reactions nor the cause of the greatest energy release from stars. It really is nuclear fusion that powers the stars, but not the fusion of hydrogen into helium.
A portion of the digitized sky survey with the nearest star to our Sun, Proxima Centauri, shown in red in the center. While sun-like stars like our own are considered common, we're actually more massive than 95% of stars in the Universe, with a full 3-out-of-4 stars in Proxima Centauri's 'red dwarf' class.David Malin, UK Schmidt Telescope, DSS, AAO
All stars, from red dwarfs through the Sun to the most massive supergiants, achieve nuclear fusion in their cores by rising to temperatures of 4,000,000 K or higher. Over large amounts of time, hydrogen fuel gets burned through a series of reactions, producing, in the end, large amounts of helium-4. This fusion reaction, where heavier elements are created out of lighter ones, releases energy owing to Einstein's E = mc2. This occurs because the product of the reaction, helium-4, is lower in mass, by about 0.7%, than the reactants (four hydrogen nuclei) that went into creating it. Over time, this can be significant: over its 4.5 billion year lifetime thus far, the Sun has lost approximately the mass of Saturn through this process.
A solar flare from our Sun, which ejects matter out away from our parent star and into the Solar System, is dwarfed in terms of 'mass loss' by nuclear fusion, which has reduced the Sun's mass by a total of 0.03% of its starting value: a loss equivalent to the mass of Saturn.NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory / GSFC
But the way it gets there is complicated. You can never have more than two objects collide-and-react at once; you can't simply put four hydrogen nuclei together and turn them into a helium-4 nucleus. Instead, you need to go through a chain reaction to build up to helium-4. In our Sun, that involves a process called the proton-proton chain, where:
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- Two protons fuse together to form a diproton: a highly-unstable configuration where two protons temporarily create helium-2,
- A tiny fraction of the time, one-in-10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 times, that diproton will decay to deuterium, a heavy isotope of hydrogen,
- And it happens so quickly that humans, who can only view the initial reactants and the final products, the diproton lifetime is so small that they’d only see two protons fuse either scatter off of each other, or fuse into a deuteron, emitting a positron and a neutrino.
When two protons meet each other in the Sun, their wavefunctions overlap, allowing the temporary creation of helium-2: a diproton. Almost always, it simply splits back into two protons, but on very rare occasions, a deuteron (hydrogen-2) is produced.E. Siegel / Beyond The Galaxy
- Then that deuteron can easily combine with another proton to fuse into helium-3, a much more energetically favorable (and faster) reaction,
- And then that helium-3 can proceed in one of two ways:
- It can either fuse with a second helium-3, producing a helium-4 nucleus and two free protons,
The most straightforward and lowest-energy version of the proton-proton chain, which produces helium-4 from initial hydrogen fuel. Note that only the fusion of deuterium and a proton produces helium from hydrogen; all other reactions either produce hydrogen or make helium from other isotopes of helium.Sarang / Wikimedia Commons
- Or it can fuse with a pre-existing helium-4, producing beryllium-7, which decays to lithium-7, which then fuses with another proton to make beryllium-8, which itself immediately decays to two helium-4 nuclei.
A higher-energy chain reaction, involving the fusion of helium-3 with helium-4, is responsible for 14% of the conversion of helium-3 into helium-4 in the Sun. In more massive, hotter stars, it can dominate.Uwe W. and Xiaomao123 / Wikimedia Commons
So those are the four possible overall steps available to the components that make up then entire "hydrogen fusing into helium" process in the Sun:
- Two protons (hydrogen-1) fuse together, producing deuterium (hydrogen-2) and other particles plus energy,
- Deuterium (hydrogen-2) and a proton (hydrogen-1) fuse, producing helium-3 and energy,
- Two helium-3 nuclei fuse together, producing helium-4, two protons (hydrogen-1), and energy,
- Helium-3 fuses with helium-4, producing beryllium-7, which decays and then fuses with another proton (hydrogen-1) to yield two helium-4 nuclei plus energy.
And I want you to note something very interesting, and perhaps surprising, about those four possible steps: only step #2, where deuterium and a proton fuse, producing helium-3, is technically the fusion of hydrogen into helium!
Only brown dwarfs, like the pair shown here, achieve 100% of their fusion energy by turning hydrogen into helium. Because deuterium fusion (deuterium+hydrogen=helium-3) occurs at temperatures of just 1,000,000 K, 'failed stars' that don't reach 4,000,000 K get their energy exclusively from the deuterium they're formed with.NASA/JPL/Gemini Observatory/AURA/NSF
Everything else either fuses hydrogen into other forms of hydrogen, or helium into other forms of helium. Not only are those steps important and frequent, they're more important, energetically, and a greater overall percentage of the reactions than the hydrogen-into-helium reaction. In fact, if we look at our Sun, in particular, we can quantify what percentage of energy and of the number of reactions in each step is. Because the reactions are both temperature dependent and some of them (like the fusion of two helium nuclei) require multiple examples of proton-proton fusion and deuterium-proton fusion to occur, we have to be careful to account for all of them.
The classification system of stars by color and magnitude is very useful. By surveying our local region of the Universe, we find that only 5% of stars are as massive (or more) than our Sun is. More massive stars have additional reactions, like the CNO cycle and other avenues for the proton-proton chain, that dominate at higher temperatures.Kieff/LucasVB of Wikimedia Commons / E. Siegel
In our Sun, helium-3 fusing with other helium-3 nuclei produces 86% of our helium-4, while the helium-3 fusing with helium-4 through that chain reaction produces the other 14%. (Other, much hotter stars have additional pathways available to them, including the CNO cycle, but those all contribute insignificantly in our Sun.) When we take into account the energy liberated in each step, we find:
- Proton/proton fusion into deuterium accounts for 40% of the reactions by number, releasing 1.44 MeV of energy for each reaction: 10.4% of the Sun's total energy.
- Deuterium/proton fusion into helium-3 accounts for 40% of the reactions by number, releasing 5.49 MeV of energy for each reaction: 39.5% of the Sun's total energy.
- Helium-3/helium-3 fusion into helium-4 accounts for 17% of the reactions by number, releasing 12.86 MeV of energy for each reaction: 39.3% of the Sun's total energy.
- And helium-3/helium-4 fusion into two helium-4s accounts for 3% of the reactions by number, releasing 19.99 MeV of energy for each reaction: 10.8% of the Sun's total energy.
This cutaway showcases the various regions of the surface and interior of the Sun, including the core, which is where nuclear fusion occurs. Although hydrogen is converted into helium, the majority of reactions and the majority of the energy that powers the Sun comes from other sources.Wikimedia Commons user Kelvinsong
It might surprise you to learn that hydrogen-fusing-into-helium makes up less than half of all nuclear reactions in our Sun and that it's also responsible for less than half of the energy that the Sun eventually outputs. There are strange, unearthly phenomena along the way: the diproton that usually just decays back to the original protons that made it, positrons spontaneously emitted from unstable nuclei, and in a small (but important) percentage of these reactions, a rare mass-8 nucleus, something you’ll never find naturally occurring here on Earth. But that’s the nuclear physics of where the Sun gets its energy from, and it's so much richer than the simple fusion of hydrogen into helium!
I am a Ph.D. astrophysicist, author, and science communicator, who professes physics and astronomy at various colleges. I have won numerous awards for science writing since 2008 for my blog, Starts With A Bang, inclu...
MORE
Astrophysicist and author Ethan Siegel is the founder and primary writer of Starts With A Bang! His books, Treknology and Beyond The Galaxy, are available wherever books are sold.
- ©2018 Forbes Media LLC. All Rights Reserved.
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Ironically and factually there is no better way than nuke war to save man and all other forms of lives from MAN's TRAGEDY of Modern Civilization Suicide & the Total Extinction Consequence. The 15000 scientists already jointly declared warning formally twice about earth's dooms day around the corner. All the billions of bastards and their political leaders JUST PRETEND TO BE DEAF and ignored the warnings.
All the nukes had been made since WW2 and throughout Cold War and until today still making, but all sit there without using! Fucking wasted resources! Better all follow Kim Jong Nuke and hit the buttons. Earth won't be blown into bits, but Billions of Over-population can be reduced into beautiful millions and all just within less than 30 mins. For any ICBMs to fly to their furthest targets only takes about 15~20mins depending on models and trajectory. Counter Strike will happen when early warning system see ICBMs coming, so the today cross fire time is still under 30 mins total, for the exchange.
Can not wait to see Putin's SIX ORGASM Invincible nukes the biggy is 100MT which is twice of Tsar Bomba
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Pure Hydrogen Fusion Bomb is perfect for Rocket Army to settle business in Taiwan!
Just Bang! and the next day PLA can go there for picnic slowly, nothing will be moving there. It is clean and no-man-land, it is yours!
Just Bang! and the next day PLA can go there for picnic slowly, nothing will be moving there. It is clean and no-man-land, it is yours!
If we can colonize the moons and asteriods around the solar system, we might succeed in becoming an inter-planatery species. Maybe even the first space farring species within our Galaxy.
But to get there, we need to avoid blowing ourselves up.
So while respecting your views, I humbly hope they don't come true.
Man checked million of space bodies and had not found even one that has any lives and earth is so far the ONLY planet that lives can survive. What the fuck for are we ruining the only living space and dream to survive in any space bodies which has not been supporting any lives? The chance of survivor is very close to ZERO. There are no resources & physical conditions to support lives.
For millions of years we lived the correct way of BALANCE and why now so stupid to ruin balance? And commit suicide?
You are so learned in missiles and fighter planes!
I got typos in that posting, corrected now. e.g. F-3
Old introduction 2 yrs ago:
Old Introduction 1 yr ago:
Muslim Video:
2 yrs ago:
This year = SUCCESS:
This year = SUCCESS:
If China is not god then there is no god.
Sun = Made in China! Moon = Made in China!
Sun = Made in China! Moon = Made in China!
It seems the PRC is an ungrateful ape. The USA helped the Communist guerillas with survivival kitsand medicine in their Long March. The US also flew bomber fighters to combat the Japanese Imperial fighter bombers that raided unprotected Chinese cities prior official WW2 starting. USA assisted China to be admitted to the World Trade Organisation, And look how the PRC responds when she got her wealth and status? Built military structures in the South China Sea, and bully and intimidate her neighbours Vietnam and the Philippines. Obviously the USA would not want the Chinks in the ISS. I wouldn't want those Commie Chinks farting in the Space Station where I work. Fuck them.Putin already stopped ISS cooperation with USA given 2020 notice, long ago.
US is broke and dead, Russia not going to fetch astronauts for NASA any more. US is weak and poor. NASA Space-X all fucked. Putin Sanction USA from getting Russian RD-180 rocket engine, USA is crippled. Only sucker Japan is helping USA.
China will dominate space. Putin is trying to JV China on new Chinese Space Station. Models of these are now showing at 珠海航展2018.
Cheers!
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You primal monkey. Go eat your mangosteens and beat your meat, beastly primate. All you dragonites think of is defeating the United States and demolishing the achinevements and contributions the US has given to our species. What will the PRC replace the US with that the world has benefiteed from? For starters,none of the the planet's religions even survive in their basic structure within the PRC - there is no indIvidual freedoms. No democracy. Freedom of speech, or internet even. Yes, they have the money, but what the fuck, they have to leave the nation to enjoy personal liberties.Sucking ang moh lumpar shiok shiok?
Or bending over to let them tiew and kann your arsehole also shiok shiok?
You fucking pathetic piece of shit!
WANG SUI WANG WANG SUI
Cheers!
For those that love to see the latest in Chinese military news, should subscribe or follow https://twitter.com/dafengcao
See his latest shots of Chinese military hardware!
WANG SUI WANG WANG SUI
Who the fuck is he?
How about your seeing of this and how a Chinese satellite moving at thousands of km above and focus and track and keeping in center of view of a rocket launching from face of the Earth?
Tracking the fucking USA carriers , and sending telemetry guidances to the DFs will be a piece of cake.
See his latest shots of Chinese military hardware!
WANG SUI WANG WANG SUI
Who the fuck is he?
How about your seeing of this and how a Chinese satellite moving at thousands of km above and focus and track and keeping in center of view of a rocket launching from face of the Earth?
Tracking the fucking USA carriers , and sending telemetry guidances to the DFs will be a piece of cake.
Go take a pineapple and korak your arsehole.
No need angmoh tiewing and kanning your arse for you to feel shiok shiok.
You can season it by first sticking it in your mother cheebye when angmoh not tiewing and kanning her.
