Serious Burn opium China national hero Lin Zexu was Hokkien

[eatshitndie]

tanwahtiu will be proud, but tanwahtiu is teochew. he will suck on soon kueh instead.

 

[ginfreely]

This Hokkien loser Lim really fucked the Cantonese up real good. But on the other hand, his fuckup allowed the Brits to introduce Western civilization to the backwards chinks who still think they are the centre of the world.

No he was a true patriot and didn't fuck up. The angmoh bastards would have found another excuse to start war anyway to get what they want.

 

[ginfreely]

Even the so-called father of modern China Sun Yat-sen was a Hakka-Cantonese. Everywhere you can see the superiority of Hakka-Cantonese-Hokkien chinks. Now you can see why communist panda Xi Jinping from Shaanxi/Henan will never make China great. In fact, he's getting closer and closer to Mao Zedong. Scary!

[video=youtube;F6xpKqrytDI]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6xpKqrytDI[/video]

Hahahaha really same style idolisation as Mao Zedong. Scary indeed.

 

[ginfreely]

Hopefully a Zhu YuanZhang or Napoleon Bonaparte will appear, overthrow the communists and return the country to a monarchy

Zhu yuan Zhang was a poor peasant who turned emperor and become tyrant himself. Goes to show only democracy works eventually.

 

[jw5]

Zhu yuan Zhang was a poor peasant who turned emperor and become tyrant himself. Goes to show only democracy works eventually.

Zhang Wuji should have become the emperor instead. :(

 

[desmondquek]

18th century Europe was only superior to China/Japan in terms of military technology.

The cannons and rifles all relied on gunpowder, and we know who discovered it.

The necessary of guarding against their own (i.e. Prussia vs France, UK, Russia.) and getting more resources from colonization induced the Europeans to refine gunpowder weapons.

China was by and large peaceful and self-sufficient, so no need to develop (Huge mistake though).

Culturally wise it was on par with 'enlightened' Europe which just came out of the barbarism of the middle ages.

A few writers lamented at how 18th cent. Europe lacked far behind the Pagan Greeks and Romans.

Religion wise also terrible, it's not native (from a place called Palestine) and has many defects (metaphysically poor) compared to hinduism, buddhism or Taoism.

The chinese and hindus ridiculed the missionaries for their bible storytelling that the world began from 4004 BC, when in fact time is beginning-less.

Chinese language has no word for the theistic 'All-good, all-knowing god'.

 

[ginfreely]

silence!!!!it is time for daily dose of strengthening of faith in motherland and cultural enrichment comrades!!!!defeat the capitalist imperialist pigs!!!!

america thinks they can defeat russia???a culture spanning to the days of napoleon and ottoman empire,not even hitler can defeat russia!!!!all ur capitalism and toys are nothing in the face of solidarity of the people!!!!

[video=youtube;ONKNwtlaF44]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ONKNwtlaF44[/video]

Russia is not communist for a long time.

https://www.quora.com/Is-Russia-still-a-communist-country

"Increasingly autocratic, chronysm on rampage, second most corrupt in Europe, increasingly militaristic - a lot of things, but definitely not Communist."

"Fundamentally Russia is not a Communist country but a Democratic one. Its people does however still have great Communistic aspirations. At the last Presidential Election in Russia, the Communist Party led by Gennady Zyuganov won more than 17% of the country's votes. That came out to about 12.3 million Russians voting for re-Stalinization, making it the second largest political party in Russia."

 

[ginfreely]

Sounds the same as China from cult of personality in leadership to cultural Revolution to rapid industrialisation?

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalinism

"Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies implemented by Joseph Stalin. Stalinist policies in the Soviet Union included state terror, rapid industrialization, the theory of socialism in one country, a centralized state, collectivization of agriculture, cult of personality in leadership, and subordination of interests of foreign communist parties to those of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union—deemed by Stalinism to be the most forefront vanguard party of communist revolution at the time.[1]

Stalinism promoted the escalation of class conflict, utilizing state violence to forcibly purge society of claimed supporters of the bourgeoisie, regarding them as threats to the pursuit of the communist revolution that resulted in substantial political violence and persecution of such people.[2] These included not only bourgeois people but also working-class people accused of counter-revolutionary sympathies.[3]

Stalinist industrialization was officially designed to accelerate the development towards communism, stressing that such rapid industrialization was needed because the country was previously economically backward in comparison with other countries; and that it was needed in order to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism.[4] Rapid industrialization was accompanied with mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid urbanization.[5] Rapid urbanization converted many small villages into industrial cities.[5] To accelerate the development of industrialization, Stalin pragmatically created joint venture contracts with major American private enterprises, such as Ford Motor Company, that under state supervision assisted in developing the basis of industry of the Soviet economy from the late 1920s to 1930s.[6] After the American private enterprises completed their tasks, Soviet state enterprises took over.[6]"

 

[ginfreely]

tanwahtiu will be proud, but tanwahtiu is teochew. he will suck on soon kueh instead.

Yeah the more I read the more Hokkien heroes there are. Singaporeans should be proud!

 

[ginfreely]

Zhang Wuji should have become the emperor instead. :(

This Zhu Yuanzhang was known for massacres indeed. Killed many people for nothing due to his poor education that misunderstood many poems and phrases and of course his cruel character. No wonder not as great as Tang dynasty.

http://news.xinhuanet.com/blog/2007-06/03/content_6190032.htm

 

[ginfreely]

18th century Europe was only superior to China/Japan in terms of military technology.

The cannons and rifles all relied on gunpowder, and we know who discovered it.

The necessary of guarding against their own (i.e. Prussia vs France, UK, Russia.) and getting more resources from colonization induced the Europeans to refine gunpowder weapons.

China was by and large peaceful and self-sufficient, so no need to develop (Huge mistake though).

Culturally wise it was on par with 'enlightened' Europe which just came out of the barbarism of the middle ages.

A few writers lamented at how 18th cent. Europe lacked far behind the Pagan Greeks and Romans.

Religion wise also terrible, it's not native (from a place called Palestine) and has many defects (metaphysically poor) compared to hinduism, buddhism or Taoism.

The chinese and hindus ridiculed the missionaries for their bible storytelling that the world began from 4004 BC, when in fact time is beginning-less.

Chinese language has no word for the theistic 'All-good, all-knowing god'.

No. It's not just the firearms but China was a "backward agrarian society" lacking behind in industries until 35 years ago according to this 2016 article: "China's Rapid Rise: From Backward Agrarian Society to Industrial Powerhouse in Just 35 Years". There were earlier efforts to industrialise starting from after the second opium war but all failed.

https://www.stlouisfed.org/publicat...ety-to-industrial-powerhouse-in-just-35-years

 

[ginfreely]

Wow Lin Zexu was the FIRST Chinese with foresight of what's happening in the world and how China should stop thinking how great it is and should learn from the west! He collected and translated vast information about the west, wrote a script 四洲记 and passed them to his trusted aide Wei Yuan to publish a book 海国图志 about the west and how to deal with the west.

Unfortunately, Manchu and Han Chinese traitor dogs dismissed the book as praising west and didn't seriously follow the teachings while the Japanese treated it as God's gift and followed the teachings religiously and that's how they quickly fully embraced the west system, overthrown the shogan and started Meiji and industrialisation; surpassed China and become number one country in East Asia by winning the war against China in 1895. Now we know Hokkien the best!

http://www.ebaomonthly.com/ebao/readebao.php?a=20071116

”第一有遠見的中國人：林則徐
海佑

......
林賞識魏源的才華，把歷年所集的海外諸國資料，及翻譯的報刊剪輯，四洲記，交託給他，囑魏源編寫一書，介紹西方文明，振發國人，不能再閉塞無知，自以為高，想惟有中國天朝。這就是海國圖志。魏源不負所託，只以半年時間完成，凡五十卷，於1844年刊行，後來擴展到百卷，宗旨是知己知彼，“師夷長技以制夷”。書中及於西方的地理，歷史，人文，工藝製造，宗教，政治制度，並如何與西方交往，是中國近代第一本這樣的書，影響中興名臣曾國藩，及後來的華人出洋，及現代化的進展，也影響日本的維新。

 

[ginfreely]

Now we know why China industrialization failed when Japan succeeded then. Chinese always thinking how great china is and refused to learn even when a fine scholar Lin Zexu (via Wei Yuan) came up a great book with teachings that Japanese recognised as gems and adopted with big success.

https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/9...46F66842E4F20832A3B0D0D6A&tj=zhidao_8_0_10_l1

《海国图志》对日本的开国及维新的影响
专业回答

　当时的历史/社会条件下能有这样的人,真是太让人佩服了.可惜在当时这样的人很少能被重用.不然也不会当时的那段历史.富国强民又何常不是现在的任务呢.
　　《海国图志》有着完全不同的命运。在它的祖国，此书出版后几乎无人问津。据统计，当时国内有绅士百万余人，有能力读此书的也多达300多万人，然而却很少有人认真地阅读和领会书中的深刻内涵。相反，许多守旧的朝廷官吏的骂声却扑面而来，他们无法接受书中对西方蛮夷的“赞美”之词，更有甚者主张将《海国图志》付之一炬。在腐败守旧的清政府眼中，《海国图志》无疑成了一本大逆不道的书籍。
　　而日本人却如获至宝，通过不断转译翻刻，使之成为日本朝野上下革新内政的“有用之书”。半个世纪后，梁启超先生说，日本明治维新的前辈们，“皆为此书所刺激，间接以演尊攘维新之活剧。” 在日本人看来，这本书简直就是天照大神送给他们的礼物，因为此书令他们大开眼界，使他们第一次如此详尽地了解了西洋各国。很快，这些书便被如获至宝的日本官员和学者买去。此后的几年里，《海国图志》仍不断“偷渡”日本。由于《海国图志》极受欢迎，1854年，日本人干脆在国内翻印了《海国图志》，引起了更大规模的阅读热潮。此后，《海国图志》在日本被大量翻印，一共印刷了15版。
　　《海国图志》的出现，为日本维新变革人士擦亮了眼睛。当时著名的维新思想家佐久间象山在读到《海国图志》“以夷制夷”的主张后，不禁拍案感慨：“呜呼！我和魏源真可谓海外同志矣！”在魏源思想的引导下，佐久间象山在思想上实现了从排斥西方人到发展与西方的关系的重大变化，他主张从全球的形势出发思考日本的方略。另一位维新志士横井小楠，也是在读了《海国图志》后得到了启发，与佐久间象山共同提出了日本“开国论”的思想。他们在吸收归纳《海国图志》的精髓后指出，日本发展之路必是“东洋道德与西洋技术的结合”。
　　日本的维新派人士认为，《海国图志》的核心内容是“制夷”，“制夷”的核心思想是“调夷之仇国以攻夷，师夷之长技以制夷”。唯有“师夷之长技”才能抵制其殖民扩张。要做到“师夷之长技以制夷”，就不仅要发展本国的工业，开展对等的对外贸易，更重要的是推行民主制度，推翻德川幕府的封建统治。

 

[ginfreely]

Wow Lin Zexu was the FIRST Chinese with foresight of what's happening in the world and how China should stop thinking how great it is and should learn from the west! He collected and translated vast information about the west, wrote a script 四洲记 and passed them to his trusted aide Wei Yuan to publish a book 海国图志 about the west and how to deal with the west.

Unfortunately, Manchu and Han Chinese traitor dogs dismissed the book as praising west and didn't seriously follow the teachings while the Japanese treated it as God's gift and followed the teachings religiously and that's how they quickly fully embraced the west system, overthrown the shogan and started Meiji and industrialisation; surpassed China and become number one country in East Asia by winning the war against China in 1895. Now we know Hokkien the best!

http://www.ebaomonthly.com/ebao/readebao.php?a=20071116

”第一有遠見的中國人：林則徐
海佑

......
林賞識魏源的才華，把歷年所集的海外諸國資料，及翻譯的報刊剪輯，四洲記，交託給他，囑魏源編寫一書，介紹西方文明，振發國人，不能再閉塞無知，自以為高，想惟有中國天朝。這就是海國圖志。魏源不負所託，只以半年時間完成，凡五十卷，於1844年刊行，後來擴展到百卷，宗旨是知己知彼，“師夷長技以制夷”。書中及於西方的地理，歷史，人文，工藝製造，宗教，政治制度，並如何與西方交往，是中國近代第一本這樣的書，影響中興名臣曾國藩，及後來的華人出洋，及現代化的進展，也影響日本的維新。

I can imagine what happened then as it's still happening now almost 200 years later whereby Chinese telling Chinese of their weaknesses and you get branded a Chinese dog bitch. Chinese can only praise Chinese!

 

[ginfreely]

In contrast, the Japanese after reading the book by Lin Zexu/Wei yuan recognised their weakness and that you cannot just modernise without changing the country backward leadership system. That is, the fundamental requirement to deal with the west is to get rid of the ruling Tokugawa family and using the west firearms they managed to do that in 1868 despite very much fewer soldiers than the Tokugawa shogun family and ended their over 200 year rules of Japan. Did you see any Chinese did the same thing to get rid of Qing emperor? No. Instead nothing was done and this allowed cixi to remain for decades rebuilding gardens/palaces while Japan was surging forward to industrialisation at the same time. And the Japanese success was reflected in their winning of war against china in 1895.

https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/9...46F66842E4F20832A3B0D0D6A&tj=zhidao_8_0_10_l1

要做到“师夷之长技以制夷”，就不仅要发展本国的工业，开展对等的对外贸易，更重要的是推行民主制度，推翻德川幕府的封建统治。1868年1月，日本的维新派势力在“王政复古”口号下，发动了对德川幕府的战争，由于装备了大量西洋新式武器，维新军队虽然人数远远少于幕府军队，但依靠武器优势连战连捷，最终包围了德川幕府的老巢江户。1858年4月，德川幕府的最后一任将军德川庆喜见大势已去，被迫向兵临城下的维新派军队投降，德川幕府对日本长达200多年的统治画上了句号。
　　1868年7月，日本新政府宣布将江户改称东京，并定为日本首都。此后，以天皇睦仁为首，由改革派武士掌握的明治政府，开始着手实行维新，推进变革，日本逐渐摆脱了西方列强的肆意欺辱，并一跃成为东亚第一强国。半个世纪后，梁启超先生在回顾这段明治维新的历史时，曾这样评价说，日本维新派前辈“皆为此书(《海国图志》)所刺激”，最终完成了改革图新大业。

 

[Sideswipe]

In contrast, the Japanese after reading the book by Lin Zexu/Wei yuan recognised their weakness and that you cannot just modernise without changing the country backward leadership system. That is, the fundamental requirement to deal with the west is to get rid of the ruling Tokugawa family and using the west firearms they managed to do that in 1858 despite very much fewer soldiers than the Tokugawa shogun family and ended their over 200 year rules of Japan. Did you see any Chinese did the same thing to get rid of Qing emperor? No. Instead nothing was done and this allowed cixi to remain for decades rebuilding gardens/palaces while Japan was surging forward to industrialisation at the same time. And the Japanese success was reflected in their winning of war against china in 1895.

https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/9...46F66842E4F20832A3B0D0D6A&tj=zhidao_8_0_10_l1

要做到“师夷之长技以制夷”，就不仅要发展本国的工业，开展对等的对外贸易，更重要的是推行民主制度，推翻德川幕府的封建统治。1868年1月，日本的维新派势力在“王政复古”口号下，发动了对德川幕府的战争，由于装备了大量西洋新式武器，维新军队虽然人数远远少于幕府军队，但依靠武器优势连战连捷，最终包围了德川幕府的老巢江户。1858年4月，德川幕府的最后一任将军德川庆喜见大势已去，被迫向兵临城下的维新派军队投降，德川幕府对日本长达200多年的统治画上了句号。
　　1868年7月，日本新政府宣布将江户改称东京，并定为日本首都。此后，以天皇睦仁为首，由改革派武士掌握的明治政府，开始着手实行维新，推进变革，日本逐渐摆脱了西方列强的肆意欺辱，并一跃成为东亚第一强国。半个世纪后，梁启超先生在回顾这段明治维新的历史时，曾这样评价说，日本维新派前辈“皆为此书(《海国图志》)所刺激”，最终完成了改革图新大业。

Taiping rebellion not counted ?

the Chinese people got rid of the Qing dynasty in 1912, albeit 50 years too late.

the USA and Britain heavily aided Japan’s process of modernization and industrialization because they wanted to build up Japan's national and military strengths to counter the powers of China and Russia back then. so even if the Qing court was willing to turn to the western countries for help to develop China, they will never give / share their technologies and skills with China to the great extent in which they aided Japan.

 

[flatearther]

Zhang Wuji should have become the emperor instead. :(

But he would have been deposed soon after that, in my opinion, so he would have wasted his time and energy:
wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Wuji#Jin Yong's evaluation of Zhang Wuji
("Although Zhang is a formidable martial artist and probably one of the best of his age, he is not a suitable candidate to be a leader. Undeniably, Zhang maintains a morally upright character and adopts an altruistic approach to his fellows. However, he lacks the qualities and prerequisites of becoming a great leader. On a personal level, he is reluctant to become a leader and only obliges to take up the Ming Cult's leadership position to please his subordinates. He lacks strong power hungry ambitions that a typical leader must have in order for him / her to remain in power. The absence of this important trait in Zhang clearly indicates that he will not become a strong leader and may eventually fail as one.")

Therefore, in my humble opinion, there is no such thing as a "good government".
In other words, ALL earthly goverments (and without exception), i.e. any relatively small group of people who strongly desire/intend to enslave (or "govern" to use the politically corrent term) the rest (who constitute the vast majority) of the population, are simply intrinsically EVIL and, therefore, HYPOCRITICAL as long as they claim to be "good" governments (including opposition parties who claim to be potentially "good" governments). :(

 

[nkfnkfnkf]

Opium was destroyed by Lin but not using fire. He used chemical warfare, mixed opium in pool of water then added Quicklime and stir. Chemical reaction destroyed opium.

http://m.liuxue86.com/a/3005507.html#!

成千上万的老百姓把虎门围个水泄不通，随着林则徐的一声令下，几个民工向灌了水的销烟池里撒下盐巴，把收缴来的鸦片抛入池内，再倒入一担担生石灰，害人的鸦片顿时被销毁了。欢呼之声响彻了虎门的上空。虎门销烟这一伟大的壮举沉重的打击了外国侵略者的嚣张气焰，也让全世界明白中国人民是不可欺辱的。

Lin lacked carnage in the anti-drug movement. Only he confiscated opium and destroyed. Not slayed the Ang Moh drug dealers. He needed to carnage even the Chinese who collaborated with Ang Moh drug syndication. Exactly like Duterte. Only enough blood can do it.

He let the bastards Ang Mohs fled, and brought a fleet of military forces to start Opium Wars. Then forced Qing Dynasty to surrendered Hong Kong to them for a century until Deng Xiao Ping managed to take back HK.

It showed that Linz's Anti-Drug came too late and began only after drug significantly weaken China, can not fight already! Lawful type anti-drug won't work because drug syndication will British Imperial and military-backed to secure their narcotic profits. Only DRUG WAR with massive carnage and resolve will work.

 

[tanwahtiu]

Talk about the future demand British Empire now England the queen E to apologize to China and all oversea Chinese before she mati.

It was the British that keep the flow of opiun available to all European mules at China door step.

 

[nkfnkfnkf]

Talk about the future demand British Empire now England the queen E to apologize to China and all oversea Chinese before she mati.

It was the British that keep the flow of opiun available to all European mules at China door step.

Civilized shit like apologies are good for nothing. The world has no resources for Coexistence In Peace, carnage and elimination is the only way out. Rid the fuck of Ang Moh while Chinese have the strength. In history Chinese carnage and eliminated many others, wiped out genocide. So Ang Moh failed to eliminate Chinese while they were strong they missed the chance already. We must not demand nor accept any apologies because that was the way of Peaceful Coexistence. Wipe out and forget it, just like Chinese ancestor wiped out the long forgotten counties / cultures of 楼兰，夜郎， Ang Moh Turmp's ancestors also wiped out many Indian Tribes completely Genocide.

The silly childish ideal of Equality and Peaceful Coexistence exploded global population to near 8 billions now, not only polluting and ruined global environment causing many endangered and extincted forms of earth's lives, also will completely EXHAUST the limited and fast depleting vital RESOURCES and man will get a final TOTAL EXTINCTION inevitably. The Original & Good and Proper system from day one of Flintstones Caveman through million years are Carnage, War, Genocide and Cannibalism, which we foolishly dropped for about a century only - see what we got ourselves into now? Ruined Planet, Extinction & Exhaustion of Resources! These silly Ang Moh ideas are Mass Suicide toxins for the brains! Millions times worst than their fuck Opium! Opium will not pollute entire globe nor extinct so many forms of lives. The crimes of Ang Moh isn't just Opim, is their Modern Civilization Suicide Ideas.

To punish the Ang Mohs for driving us towards Total Extinction, we wipe out their countries, enslave their people, auction them as slaves on 阿里巴巴！ What so ever online bids. Apologies can not be accepted. No forgiveness at all!



http://history.bjinnovate.com/archives/105464.html

夜郎、楼兰真实存在!中国历史上消失的22个神秘古国

发表于 2016年10月03日10:55

在古中国曾出现过许多神秘国度,比如夜郎.楼兰.大理.西夏等。经历朝代不断更替变迁,无数神秘国度被湮灭在历史的长河里,接下来四海奇闻小编带你纵观历史盘点22个消失的神秘国度。

.

1.闽越王国

公元前334年，越王勾践七世孙无疆与楚威王作战，失败被杀，越被楚所灭。越王族于是从海路进入福建建立了闽越王国，后来成为中国东南一带势力最强的王国之一。

许慎著作《说文解字》时解释说：闽字为东南越蛇种。

越人的到来，福建遂有闽这个简称。公元前110年，闽越国欲脱离汉王朝版图，汉武帝派军消灭之。

2.大夏王国

公元1038年，元昊在辽国的支持下称帝，建立了大夏王国。

公元1205年，西夏与蒙古发生了第一次的正面冲突，揭开了西夏与蒙古战争的序幕。

公元1227年夏，成吉思汗在远征西夏时受伤去世，之后，蒙古军杀死了已经投降的西夏末代帝王李睍，西夏灭亡。

3.楼兰王国

1980年春，新疆考古队同《丝绸之路》拍摄组一起来到罗布泊，探索古国楼兰。他们发现了一座古代楼兰人的墓葬!

在历史文献的记载中：从出现在《史记》、《汉书》中开始，楼兰只活跃了几百年，便在公元4世纪神秘消亡了。

楼兰文明是怎么失落的呢?这是一个争论了一个世纪的疑问，至今没有人能够给出一个明晰的答案。归纳几十种的推测，自然环境的变化、政治经济中心转移和人类活动破坏自然三种说法相对比较有代表性云云。

4.龟兹王国

西汉宣帝时，因龟兹先王杀死校尉赖丹，长罗侯常惠合五5万人进攻龟兹。龟兹王绛宾立即归顺降服。

公元379年，吕光奉苻坚之命进攻龟兹，大破龟兹等诸国联军，并将高僧鸠摩罗什带回中原。

公元840年，回鹘人西迁，占领了龟兹，龟兹国从此在历史上消失。

公元1758年，龟兹重新被纳入中原版图。

5.大宛王国(浩罕汗国)

前110年，汉武帝委派韩不害率使团出使大宛，希望以重金换取天马。大宛贪图汉朝财务，将韩不害杀死。

前106年，汉武帝调集兵力、物资，命李广利再次进攻大宛。汉军围困了大宛城。城内贵族反叛，献出大宛王以及天马，李广利斩大宛王。

前107年，大宛贵族派王子到汉朝做人质。清朝时，大宛改称为浩罕汗国，直至近代成为乌兹别克斯坦领土，浩罕汗国灭亡。

6.古巴王国

巴是一个古老的部族，其历史可以追溯到传说中的五帝时代。《山海经》记载：西南有巴国，太昊生咸鸟，咸鸟生乘厘，乘厘生后照，后照是始为巴人，认为巴的远祖是太昊。

巴人活动在汉水流域中游一带。后来，巴人最终迁徙到了四川东部。殷商中叶，商王武丁的妻子妇好率大军征讨巴国。巴国战败，向殷王朝纳贡服役。

公元前316年，古蜀国进攻巴国。巴国向秦国求救。秦军南下灭掉蜀国后，顺手捎带灭了巴国。

7.古蜀王国

据文献记载：约公元前3000年，黄帝娶蜀山氏的女子为妃，生下蚕丛。蜀国最早的先王即蚕丛、柏濩、鱼凫，三代而下是望帝杜宇、鳖灵，或说是蒲泽。正如诗人李白喟叹道：蚕丛及鱼凫，开国何茫然!

公元前316年，秦惠王派大夫张仪、司马错率师伐蜀。秦军一路高歌猛进，大败古蜀军，蜀王也在战场上丢了性命。秦军顺利攻占古蜀国都城。同年冬，张仪移师东伐巴国，俘获巴王，巴国也灭亡了。

8.古徐王国

约公元前2170年，夏启杀伯益，将伯益次子若木封于徐，徐国就此诞生。太康时，徐国国君后羿逐太康，立仲康，仲康死后又自立为王，最终被亲信寒浞杀死、篡权。

公元前963年(周穆王十三年至十七年间)周穆王命楚国举兵伐徐。徐偃王弃国逃走，最终被追兵压迫，投海而死。公元前512年(周敬王八年)冬，吴国伐徐，水淹徐国。徐王章羽逃奔楚国，徐国自此失去国号。

9.东胡王国

东胡：是中国春秋战国时期强盛一时的北方民族，因居匈奴以东而得名。公元前206年(汉高祖元年)，统治蒙古高原西部的匈奴部落发生了冒顿杀其父头曼自立为单于。

东胡王认为匈奴软弱可欺，先派人索求了冒顿妻子、良马，又打算讨要两国边境的土地。冒顿怒曰：地者，国之本也，奈何予之!遂兴兵伐东胡。东胡人不备，惨败告终，东胡国就此灭亡。

10.夜郎王国

夜郎立国共三四百年，是汉代西南夷中较大的一个部族。

夜郎灭国于西汉末期，汉成帝河平年间，夜郎与南方小国发生争斗，不服从朝廷调解。汉廷新上任的牂牁(zāng kē，今贵州省大部分及广西、云南部分地区)郡守陈立深入夜郎腹地，斩杀名叫兴的夜郎末代国王。

11.乌孙王国

公元前2世纪初，乌孙王难兜靡被月氏人攻杀，其幼子猎骄靡被匈奴冒顿单于抚养成人，后来得以复兴故国。

公元前101年，继解忧公主后，汉朝解忧公主嫁给乌孙王军须靡。在乌孙，解忧公主先后嫁给三代乌孙王，与侍女冯嫽共同致力加深汉朝与乌孙的联系。汉朝与乌孙在这段时间亲如一家，共同抗击匈奴。

魏晋南北朝时期，蠕蠕入侵，乌孙被迫西迁葱岭山中，不久被蠕蠕所灭。乌孙国遂成为历史名词。

12.匈奴汗国

西汉初期，中亚大陆是属于匈奴的。深以被匈奴人凌辱为耻的汉武帝下定了决心，决意不惜一切代价也要把匈奴人彻底击溃。汉武帝很幸运，大将军卫青，足智多谋，是不可多得的帅才;骠骑将军霍去病，是骁勇善战的奇才，天生是匈奴人的克星。被打败的郅支单于，率部向西逃到今天的俄属突厥斯坦。

公元前36年，西汉校尉陈汤发出明犯强汉者，虽远必诛!这句震惊天下的誓言，率军在一次近乎玩命的袭击中直抵楚河畔，袭击了郅支单于，并砍掉他的头。跟随郅支单于迁到威海边的匈奴人在史书中消失了。

直到公元4世纪末，当他们的后裔渡过伏尔加河和顿河入侵欧洲时，匈奴人的踪迹才再次出现在人们的视线中。

13.滇王国

在汉朝人发现滇国之后，没过多少年，这个古国就消失了。据《史记》记载：公元前109年(西汉元丰二年)，汉武帝发兵进攻滇国。滇王举国归附，武帝正式承认滇国，并赐刻有滇王之印字样的王印一枚。至此，滇国纳入汉朝版图。

14.疏勒国

公元前60年，疏勒国正式归属中原王朝，此后与历代中原王朝都保持着政治与经济文化方面的密切联系。公元649年(贞观二十三年)，唐军一鼓作气从突厥兵手中夺回龟兹、疏勒，统归安西都护府辖制。

公元675年(上元二年)，始立疏勒都督府。疏勒都督府辖境，西达葱岭(在今塔什库尔干)，东北至今阿克苏，东南至今皮山一带，是当年安西四镇中辖地最广、领州最多的一方重镇。

15.南越王国

秦末刘邦项羽楚汉相争之际，时任南海郡尉的赵佗乘势建立南越国，自称南越武王，定都番禺。南越国是岭南第一个封建割据政权，在岭南统治长达93年。

公元前196年，在汉使陆贾劝说下，赵佗接受汉高祖赐给的南越王印绶，臣服汉朝，南越成为汉朝的一个藩属国。

公元前112年，权相吕嘉等人终于发动叛乱，杀死国王赵兴、樛太后和汉使者。汉武帝闻讯大怒，调遣10万人火速进攻南越。公元前111年冬，南越战败，吕嘉和赵建德出逃被擒获，南越国灭亡。

16.吐谷浑汗国

吐谷浑原本是一个人的名字，即慕容吐谷浑，鲜卑人。

公元329年，叶延继承汗位，以第一代可汗的名字做姓氏及国号，改姓吐谷浑。

公元609年，隋军大败吐谷浑，将今青海大部分地区划归隋朝版图。

公元635年，唐太宗下诏让吐谷浑正式成为唐朝的属国。

公元663年(唐高宗龙朔三年)，吐蕃禄东赞大举进攻，在吐谷浑亲吐蕃大臣的帮助下，顺利攻入吐谷浑。吐谷浑国就此灭亡。

17.大理王国

公元937年，南诏旧将段思平联络云南东部贵族灭掉了大义宁称帝，改国号为大理。

公元1147年，段和誉把皇位传给段正兴后宣布出家，从此，大理国势日衰。

公元1253年，蒙古大军南下，开始侵扰大理国。次年，蒙古大军活捉段兴智，大理遂亡。

18.柔然汗国

柔然国是鲜卑族的一支，在五世纪至六世纪在蒙古高原上过着游牧生活。国家最为强大时，疆域北到贝加尔湖畔，南到阴山南麓，东北到达大兴安岭，西部与准噶尔盆地。

487年，原属柔然的敕勒副伏罗部阿伏至罗率10余万落西迁，脱离柔然的统治。他率部到达车师前部西北，建立高车国，自立为王。北魏采取了保存柔然以牵制周边日益强盛的高车国的政策，将柔然国分而治之。

阿那瓌被安置于怀朔镇北的吐若奚泉，婆罗门被安置于居延海附近的故西海郡。555年，突厥大举进攻西部柔然，邓叔子领余众数千投奔西魏。反被西魏杀死在长安青门外，柔然汗国灭亡。

19.高车汗国

5世纪末柔然的敕勒部落，在阿伏至罗率领下，十余万西迁。487年在车师前部(今新疆吐鲁番交河故城一带)建立高车国。高车国向南控制了通往西域的门户高昌以及焉耆、鄯善，势力东北至色楞格河、鄂尔浑河、土拉河一带，北达阿尔泰山，西接乌孙西北的悦般，东与北魏相邻。541年，高车国被柔然汗国消灭。

20.乌桓王国

乌桓：亦作乌丸、古丸，东胡系统的古代民族之一。前206年，匈奴王冒顿单于消灭了东胡人联盟。东胡人中的一支向北败退，来到科尔沁草原的中心地带的乌桓山下定居，这就是乌桓。

公元1世纪初的王莽统治时期，乌桓开始进入奴隶社会。东汉末年，辽西、辽东、右北平三郡乌桓被曹操平复。他把乌桓人全部迁入中原，将所获的乌桓战士通过精选和整编，改编成精良的骑兵部队，仍由乌桓的王、候大人率领，随同曹操转战南北。

21.琉球王国

琉球王国群岛是位于台湾与日本之间的几个小岛，1372年，朱元璋在位时琉球王国成为中国的藩属国向明朝朝贡，奉明朝正朔。

1879年，因为晚清政府软弱无能，日本出兵琉球，琉球王国被灭。日本刚占领琉球时，不择手段强行推行日化运动，但琉球人几百年积累下来的汉文化已经根深蒂固了，他们的口音属闽南语系，使用中国农历年号，民俗社会人文依然属于中华文化。

二战后期，美国进攻冲绳，日军强迫岛上的琉球人跳崖自杀，对琉球人进行屠杀，导致二战时期琉球人的人口减少了四分之一。之后，日军焚烧了所有有关琉球王国的文献!

22.锡金王国

锡金王国：又称山顶王国。 乾隆时期，清高宗皇帝先后两次用兵，最后由福康安和海兰察统率清军于1791年将廓尔喀人全部逐出西藏，并越境追击至尼泊尔首都加德满都城郊。廓尔喀军队愿意从此忠于中原王朝，奉大清正朔，从此成为中国的地方政权，这也是乾隆十全武功的最后一武功。


http://americanhistory.oxfordre.com...199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-3


Genocide and American Indian History
Jeffrey Ostler

Subject:
Early National History, Native American History

Online Publication Date:
Mar 2015

DOI:
10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.3

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In This Article

Virgin Soil Epidemics and Native Depopulation
Disease and Other Forces of Destruction
New England and the Pequot War
The United States and the Question of Genocide
War, 1776–1815
Removal, 1815–1840
California Gold Rush
The Indian Wars
Reservations and the Twentieth Century
Discussion of the Literature
Further Reading
Notes

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Indian Slavery
Federal Indian Law
Native Americans and Cities
Indian Removals

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Summary and Keywords

The issue of genocide and American Indian history has been contentious. Many writers see the massive depopulation of the indigenous population of the Americas after 1492 as a clear-cut case of the genocide. Other writers, however, contend that European and U.S. actions toward Indians were deplorable but were rarely if ever genocidal. To a significant extent, disagreements about the pervasiveness of genocide in the history of the post-Columbian Western Hemisphere, in general, and U.S. history, in particular, pivot on definitions of genocide. Conservative definitions emphasize intentional actions and policies of governments that result in very large population losses, usually from direct killing. More liberal definitions call for less stringent criteria for intent, focusing more on outcomes. They do not necessarily require direct sanction by state authorities; rather, they identify societal forces and actors. They also allow for several intersecting forces of destruction, including dispossession and disease. Because debates about genocide easily devolve into quarrels about definitions, an open-ended approach to the question of genocide that explores several phases and events provides the possibility of moving beyond the present stalemate. However one resolves the question of genocide in American Indian history, it is important to recognize that European and U.S. settler colonial projects unleashed massively destructive forces on Native peoples and communities. These include violence resulting directly from settler expansion, intertribal violence (frequently aggravated by colonial intrusions), enslavement, disease, alcohol, loss of land and resources, forced removals, and assaults on tribal religion, culture, and language. The configuration and impact of these forces varied considerably in different times and places according to the goals of particular colonial projects and the capacities of colonial societies and institutions to pursue them. The capacity of Native people and communities to directly resist, blunt, or evade colonial invasions proved equally important.